Harrier Of The Desert

Historical Background

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the revolutionary Hawker Siddeley (later British Aerospace) Harrier V/STOL combat aircraft entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). These first generation Harriers were however handicapped by its short range and rather light payload. In Short Take-Off and Landing (STOL) operations, the AV-8A (as the Harrier was designated in USMC service), carried only half the payload of the smaller A-4 Skyhawk and over a smaller radius of action. In 1973, Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas began joint development of an improved Harrier. They started by designing an improved Pegasus engine, called Pegasus 15. While more powerful, the Pegasus 15 was too large to fit easily into the Harrier's airframe. In December 1973, a joint US-British team completed a project document for a replacement aircraft to replace the original US and British Harriers, as well as the A-4 Skyhawks of the USMC, called the Advanced Harrier or the AV-16 (as the project intended to double the AV-8's payload and range). The British government however pulled out of the project in March 1975, due to decreased defence funding. escalating costs and the RAF's insufficient requirement (for economies of scale). With development costs estimated to be around £180-200 million, the United States was unwilling to fund the project by itself and ended the project later in the same year.

Despite the cancellation, McDonnell Douglas and Hawker Siddeley continued their separate programs for an enhanced Harrier. The British focused on a larger wing that can be retrofitted onto existing airframes while McDonnell Douglas concentrated on a less ambitious project, catering for the needs of the US military as the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without developing a new engine for it. The US Department of Defense authorized the development of the Harrier II in 1976. McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, revised intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles and other aerodynamic changes. Designated YAV-8B, it first flew on 9 November 1978. Test results showed greater than expected drag, reducing maximum speed. It were all positives for other aspects however, such as payload, range and V/STOL performance and this led to a development contract in 1979. Despite that the DoD and the US Navy (who traditionally procured aircraft for the Marines), repeatedly tried to terminate the AV-8B program with the Navy pressured the USMC to adopt the then-designated F-18 fighter (later designated the F/A-18 Hornet and was eventually adopted by the USMC alongside the Harrier). Despite the obstacles, the DoD included the AV-8B in its annual budget and five-year defense plan in 1981. The USN declined to participate, citing the limited range and payload compared to conventional aircraft.

In August 1981, McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace (BAe) signed a Memorandum of Understanding, signalling the UK's re-entry into the program, However, under the agreement, BAe was reduced into the role of sub-contractor, shouldering 40% of the airframe work-share. Work share for the engine was 75% Rolls-Royce (which had absorbed Bristol Siddeley) and 25% Pratt & Whitney. The aircraft were to built at McDonnell Douglas' facility in St. Louis, Missouri and BAe's Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey. Four Full Scale Development aircraft were built, with the first flying on 5 November 1981. The first production aircraft was delivered to VMAT-203 at MCAS Cherry Point on 12 December 1983.

The Harrier II retained the basic shape of the original Harrier. To improve pilot's visibility and to accommodate the crew and hardware, the cockpit was raised by 27cm and the canopy was redesigned. To compensate for the changes in the forward fuselage, the rear fuselage was lengthened by 46cm and the taller tail of the Sea Harrier was used. To reduce weight, the tail assembly was made of composite materials. The most significant change however is the wing, with the objective of having the projected AV-16's performance while still using the AV-8A's original Pegasus engine. The wing is a one-piece supercritical structure which improves cruise performance. It was also made of composites; in fact the Harrier II was the first combat aircraft to extensively employ carbon-fibre composites, reducing weight without sacrificing strength. The AV-8B is equipped with one centreline and six wing hardpoints along with fuselage stations for a 25mm GAU-12 cannon together with an ammunition pod. The British version (the GR.5 and onwards) have an additional missile rail under each wing in front of the outrigger leg fairing. The hardpoints allow the aircraft to carry up to 4,200kg of weapons including rockets, dumb and smart munitions and missiles. The Harrier II also retained the tandem landing gear layout of the original Harrier although the outrigger leg was moved inboard to allow better maneuverability on the ground. On the underside of the fuselage, McDonnell Douglas added lift-improvement devices (called air dams), which capture the reflected engine gas when close to the ground, giving an equivalent of 1,200lb of extra lift.

The Harrier II achieved its Initial Operating Capability (IOC) in January 1985 with VMA-331 'Bumblebees' and later saw extensive action during the First Gulf War in 1991. AV-8Bs on board USS Nassau and USS Tarawa initially flew training and support sorties, being held as a reserve during the preparatory phase of Operation Desert Storm. On 17 January 1991, in response to a call from an OV-10 FAC aircraft, the AV-8Bs were used to attack Iraqi artillery positions bombarding the Saudi town of Khafji. Throughout the war the AV-8Bs flew armed recon missions and worked in concert with Coalition forces and lost five of their number. Following the war, they flew from amphibious assault ships and Ali Al-Salem Airbase in Kuwait in support of Operation Southern Watch. In 2003 they returned to Iraq supporting USMC ground units. Initially operating from USS Bonhomme Richard and USS Bataan, the Harriers moved to forward-locating points to enable prompt actions. The Harriers also took part in Operation Allied Force over the Balkans in 1999 and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan since 2001. The AV-8B were also used by the Italian Marina Militare since 1995, operating from carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi. Spain was another export customer, operating their Harriers from the carrier Principe de Asturias.

The baseline AV-8B is essentially a 'day-only' attack aircraft, utilising the Hughes AN/ASB-19 angle rate bombing system. In 1991, the Night Attack Harrier was introduced. It differed from the AV-8B by having a FLIR camera in a fairing atop the nose cone, a wide HUD, provision for night vision goggles and a Honeywell digital moving map system. A further upgrade program resulted in the Harrier II Plus. This is basically a Night Attack Harrier with an APG-65 multi-mode radar replacing the angle rate bombing system. The radar was taken from early F/A-18s and allowed the Harrier to fire missiles such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM and AGM-84 Harpoon. The production of the AV-8B ended in 1997.

The Kit

Hasegawa came up with a new-tool 1/72 AV-8B in 2001. As the 'King of Reboxings', Hasegawa re-released the kit for a number of times, with the 'Desert Harrier' boxing in 2002. The kit parts were spread among nine grey and one clear sprues plus some polycaps for the nozzles. The surface detail was as expected from Hasegawa with nicely engraved panel lines. The LERXs are separate, allowing the larger LERX of the Night Attack and Plus to be moulded separately. Another plus point is that the auxiliary inlet doors are moulded in the open position. The cockpit is however fairly spartan with a barely passable Stencel seat. While the auxiliary intake doors were accurately portrayed in the open position, Hasegawa moulded the airbrake door shut; there wasn't even the strakes on the door. The hot nozzles were also simplified. And as usual, there is virtually no weapons save for a pair of fuel tanks and a pair of Sidewinders. Markings are provided for three aircraft, all during the Desert Storm time period:

1. BuAer 162943/'01' VMA-231 'Ace Of Spades'
2. BuAer 163512/'05' VMA-231 'Ace Of Spades'
3. BuAer 163662/'01' VMA-311 'Tomcats'

Construction

Without fail, construction invariably started at the cockpit. The cockpit tub, instrument panel, bottom half of the control stick and the whole interior of the fuselage was painted Grey FS 36231 using Gunze Aqueous H317. The upper half and the sides of the seat was painted XF-1 Flat Black while the fabric of the seat was painted XF-62 Olive Drab. The instrument faces were in the form of decals and they applied as normal. The next sub-assembly to be attended to was the engine face, which consisted of three parts. The fan blades were painted Silver with the intake tunnel painted XF-2 Flat White. The two-part structure between the cockpit assembly and the compressor face was painted H317. Before joining the fuselage halves, the poly caps were inserted into their places and cement was carefully applied to join the spreader bars to one half of the fuselage. A couple of holes were also drilled on the left fuselage to accommodate the IFR probe later on. With the cockpit and engine face assembly cemented to one side, the fuselage halves were glued together. The separate nose halves were glued together and mated to the main fuselage. The intakes were glued but the exhausts and the heat shields were left off at this time. The intake at the base of the fin was also glued on but there is a slight step here. The horizontal tails were also glued, finishing the basic fuselage at this time.

Before moving to the wings. the gun and ammo pods were assembled. The pods were optional in the kit, like the original. The pods can be substituted with the ventral strakes if one so wished. The pods were also left off at this time. The wing proper consists of three parts: a single upper half and two separate lower halves. I started off by filling the holes in the forward part of the outrigger (for the Sidewinder rails in the RAF Harrier version). The fit is OK but the same cannot be said with the wing-LERX joint. Like the nose, Hasegawa moulded the LERX as separate from the wings to allow minimal tooling for other versions of the Harrier II. Perhaps I should have glued the LERX section to the wing first before cementing them to the fuselage. Although I originally intended to paint them separately, the pods and the IFR probe were cemented before commencing the painting.

Painting and Decaling

Some word about USMC AV-8B colour schemes first. When delivered, the majority of AV-8Bs were painted a camouflage pattern of dark green and  dark grey. With their deployment to the Persian Gulf in 1990-1991, the dark green/dark grey pattern was replaced with Light Ghost Grey (FS 36375) / Medium Ghost Grey (FS 36320) pattern, except for VMA-231 which used Medium Ghost Grey FS 36320 and Blue-Grey FS 35237. The Desert Harrier boxing accurately reflected the scheme by having the VMA-231 options in FS 36320/FS 35237. I have already decided earlier that I'm going to do Option 1. The model was painted accordingly using Gunze Mr. Hobby Aqueous colours. The paints dried glossy so removing the need to gloss coat the model for decals (as if I did that previously!). The 'cold' jetpipe nozzles were painted the appropriate camouflage colours while the 'hot' nozzles were painted Burnt Iron. The heat shields were painted a custom mix of metallic paints to approximate the titanium-ish colour.

When the paints had dried, it was time for the decals. I chose 'Shank 01'/'Venom' (Shank being VMA-231's radio call-sign) flown by VMA-311's CO at that time, Lieutenant Colonel William 'Rusty' Jones. The reason was plainfully obvious - the shark face motif! The decals were typically Hasegawa, having a thick carrier film. Thankfully the off-white white was not a problem here as the markings were all of the low-visibility type. In fact some stencil markings were nearly invisible because of the low-contrast grey colour scheme. All the decals received the usual Mr Mark Softer treatment.

Finishing

With the markings in place, it was time tie up the loose ends. I started by cementing the main landing gears and the outrigger wheels, allowing the model to stand on its own. This was followed by cementing all the wing pylons, followed by the heat shields and the 'hot' exhausts. For ordnance, I turned to the internet for guidance. There were a lot of combinations and I have to check my stash to see whether I have the relevant weapons in stock. I eventually settled for four Mk.83 1,000-lb bombs from Hasegawa's Weapons Set I, and one of the kit's Sidewinders on the left wing. The other Sidewinder made its way to the stash. There weren't any sway braces however and the bombs looked like they were magically hung there! The various small parts like aerials and the clear ARBS aperture in the nose were then cemented onto the model. Although having read on the internet that the inside of the ARBS should be painted a spot of blue to simulate the camera aperture, I forgot about it! The panel lines were then highlighted with 2B pencil and some recesses received the sludge wash. The canopy was the cemented in the open position after the model has received a spray of Flat Clear.

Conclusion

Hasegawa's 1/72 AV-8B is actually a nice little kit with nicely engraved panel lines and general outline. Another of its plus point is the open auxiliary intakes, a feature most manufacturers left in their 1/72 kit. Having said that, Hasegawa moulded the ventral airbrake in the closed position, whereas it should be opened whenever the landing gears are down. Some other details were also left off, like the yaw vane on the nose. Fit is also a problem on certain parts of the kit, especially on those moulded separately to allow for other versions of the AV-8B/Harrier II. And I need not go on about the sparse cockpit detail and the lack of weaponry. Having said all that, it was still a very buildable kit and just needed a little TLC and perhaps some help from aftermarket goodies.

Tonka The Euro-Swinger

Historical Background

In 1968, West Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, Belgium and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter then in use with the the said countries' air forces. The participating nations agreed that their fleets require replacement but since the requirements were so diverse, it was decided to develop a single aircraft that can perform a variety of missions. It was initially called the Multi Role Aircraft (MRA) and later called the Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA). In 1968, Britain joined the group, after the cancellation of the TSR-2 and F-111K programmes. At the same time, Canada pulled out on political grounds while Belgium withdrew on operational issues, especially after it was offered Mirage 5 from France. On 26 March 1969, the UK, West Germany, Italy and The Netherlands agreed to form a multinational company, the Panavia Aircraft GmbH to develop and manufacture the MRCA. A separate company, Turbo-Union Ltd was also formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft. The Netherlands however pulled out in the same year, citing that the aircraft was too complicated and technical for the Royal Netherlands Air Force. At the conclusion of the aircraft definition phase in May 1970, the concepts were reduced to two designs: the single-seat Panavia 100, which the West Germans initially preferred, and the two-seat Panavia 200 design, preferred by the British (and eventually chosen as the Tornado). In September 1971, the participating governments agreed to proceed, and the aircraft was intended solely for low-level strike mission.

The first prototype flew on 14 August 1974 at Manching, West Germany with deliveries of production aircraft beginning in July 1979. As the original designation hinted, the Tornado is a multirole design, with emphasis on low-level penetration of enemy defences. Like the F-111, and for the same reason, the Tornado was fitted with variable-geometry wings. The Tornado was flown by two crewmembers - the pilot and a weapons officer. Flight control is a hybrid FBW system. The primary sensor was a combined navigation/attack doppler radar that can simultaneously scan for targets and conduct fully automatic terrain-following at low-level flight. In addition RAF and RSAF Tornados were equipped with Laser Ranger and Marked Target Seeker (LRMTS) for use with laser-guided weapons. From 1991, RAF Tornados can self-designated targets with the use of Target Identifcation Airborne Laser Designator (TIALD) pods. The Tornado is armed with two (one for the ADV) Mauser BK-27 27mm cannons and was cleared to carry the majority of air-launched weapons in NATO inventory, including nuclear weapons. There were also specialised runway attack munitions dispenser specially made for the Tornado - JP223 (RAF) and the MW-1 (Luftwaffe). In the 1990s, the RAF's GR1 fleet was upgraded to GR4 standard, which included a FLIR, wide-angle HUD, new avionics, GPS receiver and NVG capability. Weapons capability was also upgraded with Storm Shadow cruise missiles, Brimstone anti-tank missiles and Paveway III laser-guided bombs. The Luftwaffe IDS received the ASSTA upgrades which include GPS and laser iniertial nav systems, TAURUS KEPD 350 cruise missiles, JDAM and Paveway III laser-guided bombs.

The 'basic' Tornado was the IDS (Interdictor/Strike) and designated GR1 (later GR4) in RAF service. The GR1A/4A was the reconnaissance variant used by the RAF and RSAF, fitted with the Tornado Infra-Red Reconaissance System (TIRRS) in place of the cannons. The Tornado ECR was the suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD) and limited reconnaissance variant operated by Germany and Italy, equipped with radar usage sensors and armed with AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missiles. The ADV (Air Defence Variant) model (designated F3 in RAF service) is a specialised interceptor variant. Although having 80% commonality with the IDS, the ADV have greater acceleration, improved Mk 104 engines, a stretched body, greater fuel capacity and AI.24 Foxhunter air-intercept radar. The ADV was not designed as a dogfighter, but as a long-range interceptor to counter the threat of Cold War-era bombers. The ADV is armed a single Mauser BK-27 cannon, four AIM-9 Sidewinder IR-homing missiles and four BAe Skyflash radar-guided missiles. Apart from the RAF, the ADV was used by Italy and Saudi Arabia.

The Tornado made its combat debut in 1991 during the first Gulf War as part of Operation Granby. Early in the conflict, the RAF Tornados flew anti-airfield missions using 1,000-lb bombs and the JP233 dispenser. The RAF also initiated a crash programme resulting in Blackburn Buccaneers lasing targets for the Tornados using the Pave Spike pod and later on, the Tornados were able to lase the targets themselves using the TIALD pod. Six Tornados were lost during the Gulf War. The RAF Tornados later took part in Operation Southern Watch and Operation Desert Fox and also during Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. The Tornados return to Iraq in 2003 as part of Operation Telic where the TAURUS missile was first used in combat. In 2009, they replaced Harrier GR.7/9 in Afghanistan and in 2011, they were deployed against Libya where several aircraft flew a 3,000 mile strike missions, the longest the RAF has undertaken since the Black Buck missions during the Falklands War. The other users of the Tornado - Germany, Italy and Saudi Arabia have also used their Tornados in combat. The Luftwaffe took part in Operation Allied Force over Kosovo in 1999 while Italy, like the UK, took part in the 1991 Gulf War (Operation Locusta), losing a Tornado to Iraqi AA fire. The AMI Tornados also took part in Operation Allied Force in 1999 and also the NATO intervention in Libya during 2011.  Finally RSAF Tornados also took part in the 1991 Gulf War.

The Kit

Hasegawa's 1/72 Tornado GR.1 kit is another of their late 1980s release, specifically in 1989. Hasegawa released two kits of the IDS - one as, well, the IDS with Luftwaffe and AMI markings, and this kit, the GR1 featuring RAF and RSAF markings. The kit has nicely engraved, recessed panel lines. The cockpit features adequate and acceptable details but as usual, can be upgraded further with aftermarket resin parts, especially for the ejection seats. As I have read a number of years back, there is a shape issue with this kit, revolving around the shape of the nose. In general the modelling community agree that the Revell kit is more accurate but upon early inspection, the 'wrong' nose shape of the Hasegawa kit wasn't really apparent, from some angles that is. Being a swing-wing design, the model of the Tornado also allow a workable wing. The rear fuselage is split horizontally to allow the wings to be poseable and unlike other swing-wing aircraft models, Hasegawa moulded some extensions at the place where the wing meets the fuselage, closing off the gap on the fuselage if the wing was posed in the forward position. The forward fuselage was split vertically and was separate from the rear, allowing Hasegawa to mould just the forward fuselage for the ADV variant. Weapons fit was somewhat limited - while two self-defence Sidewinders were included, the main attack weapon included in the kit was just a pair of JP233 pods. Other underwing stores were two large external fuel tanks (although no 'Hindenburger' tanks were included) and two Sky Shadow ECM pods (while there are photos of RAF Tornados carrying two ECM pods, the more usual configuration was one ECM pod and BOZ-107 chaff/flare dispenser).

Decals were provided for five aircraft, which are:
- ZA585, No. 617 Sq (The Dambusters), RAF
- ZA596, No. IX Sq, RAF
- ZA467, No. 16 Sq (The Saints), RAF Germany
- ZD793, No. 17 Sq (Black Knights), RAF Germany
- 764, Royal Saudi Air Force

Construction

The cockpit parts were first painted Medium Sea Grey using Gunze Aqueous H335. Details were painted Flat Black. The interior parts have raised details which can be painted but there is also decal options. I opted for the latter as the process is simpler. The ejection seats were a three-part assembly and while aftermarket resin seats are of course the best-looking, the kit seats weren't bad either and I have seen worse. The fuselage halves were then mated together with the cockpit in the middle. There was some fit issue but was easily handled with some sanding (yes, I did test-fit the assembly before painting the cockpit sidewalls). A point to note: Hasegawa moulded the nose probe together with the fuselage, therefore increasing the risk for breakage. The main wheel wells and part of the engine intakes were then cemented to the lower fuselage half. Holes were then drilled into the latter and also the lower wing halves. The wing parts were then mated together and later the wings were mounted onto their pivot mountings. After making sure the wings were aligned properly, I glued them in the forward position. The upper half of the fuselage was then cemented onto the rear fuselage. The outer wall of the intakes were then cemented but the fit wasn't great.

The nose assembly was then cemented to the fuselage. This was followed by mating the large tail halves together and then cementing the tail to the fuselage. Hasegawa provided an option for the airbrakes to be posed in the deployed position but I glued them shut. Looking at the painting options, I decided to build a Germany-based aircraft, and for that, the externally-mounted IFR probe was attached to the fuselage (apparently UK-based aircraft were not fitted with IFR probe back then). The last parts I added to the model before painting was the LRMTS pod underneath the nose and the fuselage pylons. The external fuel tanks and wing pylons were assembled but would remain separate for now.

Painting and Decaling

RAF Tornado GR1s were painted a wraparound colour scheme of Dark Sea Grey and Dark Green throughout the 1980s. To paint my Tornado, I used Tamiya XF-54 and Gunze Aqueous H330. The nose was painted X-18 Semi-Gloss Black. Detail areas such as the skin outside the cannon muzzles  and the heat exchanger exhaust shields were painted Silver while the exhausts and reverse thrusters were painted Burnt Iron and Silver. The sliding portion and the innermost part of the wing were painted Medium Sea Grey. Although still separate, parts like the wing pylons, external fuel tanks and gear doors were painted at this time. Then it was time for the decals. I first apply all the regulation stencils such as the 'No Step' notifications, intake and vent markings and so on. Hasegawa provided those markings separately for UK- and West Germany-based aircraft (the West Germany-based aircraft have bilingual stencils). The markings I chose was from No.16 Squadron, then based at Laarbruch. The 16th was known as 'The Saints', after Saint-Omer, France, the birthplace of the squadron in 1915. The kit markings reflect those worn by their Tornados in the 1980s, with the official crossed keys motif on the intake and the unofficial 'Saint' marking on the tail. Despite being rather thick, the decals responded well to Mr Mark Softer. The specific Saints' markings were however a bit off-register. The model then received the usual sludge wash treatment; the landing gears were weathered using Tamiya X-19 Smoke. 

Finishing

The various loose parts can now be permanently fixed to the model. These include the various aerials which were first painted while still on the sprue and then fixed to the model using superglue. This was followed by the landing gears and their doors. For the underwing stores, I worked inside-out, starting with the Sidewinders, the external fuel tanks and the defensive electronics. The Sky Shadow pod and the JP223 munitions dispenser were painted H330 but with a different tone, to differentiate it from the Dark Green parts of the aircraft. On the outermost starboard station, I decided to replace the scond Sky Shadow pod with a BOZ-107 chaff/flare dispenser. The problem is that the local shops did not stock any while at the time of the build, all of my favourite online shops have run out of it. Rummaging through my stash, I found a BOZ-103 pod from Heller's weapon set. To my eyes, the -103 has the same shape and (hopefully) size as the -107, lacking only the fins. So with the help of images on the internet, I cut some plastic sheet and fashioned it into fins to turn the BOZ-103 into a BOZ-107. The canopy was then set in the open position. Before sealing everything with Flat Clear, I smeared Tamiya Weathering Master Soot on the vertical tail as there are photos showing it to be heavily weathered. The discoloration was caused by the hot exhaust gases being deflected by the thrust reversers upon landing.

But there is still time for one last mishap. The Tamiya TS series of lacquer clear paints are not to be sprayed onto decals and it was expressly stated on the cover. Yet I used them all the time without problems. But as my friend Murphy expressly stated, it happened this time. I think I used too much (my mind was elsewhere at the time), softening the warning decals on the nose, with gravity doing the rest (the model was upside down by the way). I guess I deserved it and this incident served as a salutary lesson. (I'm going to use the Tamiya Flat Clear anyway...but with more caution!) 

Conclusion

The Hasegawa offering of the Tornado has its shortcomings. Apart from the oddly-shaped nose, the wing looked too narrow in chord. Apparently the Revell Tornado is more accurate but according to an online review (I can't remember which one), the 'accurate' 1/72 Tornado lies somewhere in-between the Hasegawa and Revell kits. Hasegawa also continued its tradition of not including multiplicity of weapons in their kit; but thankfully the JP233 was included. Still it would be nice if the Mk 13 1,000-lb bombs or BL755 cluster bombs or Paveway LGBs were included. Anyway, despite the shortcomings, the kit was easy to assemble with not much fit problems.

Flying Earth Pig!

Historical Background

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the USAF and the US Navy were looking for a new aircraft that suited their needs. The USAF was looking for a long-range interdictor/strike aircraft able to penetrate Soviet air defences at low altitude and high speeds while the Navy was looking for a long-range, high endurance fleet air defence/interceptor aircraft to protect its carriers from long-range anti-ship missiles. Both of these requirements shared the same features: the need to carry heavy weapons and fuel loads, high supersonic speeds, twin engines, two crewmembers and possible use of variable-geometry wings. A month after Robert S. McNamara became the Secretary of Defense in January 1961, he directed the services to study a single aircraft that could satisfy both requirements. In June 1961, McNamara ordered the Tactical Fighter, Experimental (TFX) project to carry on despite the efforts of the services to keep their projects separate. The TFX was based largely on the Air Force's requirements and a Request For Proposals was provided to the industry in October 1961. Two months later, proposals were received from Boeing, General Dynamics, Lockheed, McDonnell, North American and Republic, with Boeing and General Dynamics selected to submit enhanced designs. Both companies submitted their enhanced proposals in April 1962. The Air Force favoured Boeing's submission while the Navy found both submissions unacceptable. Further updating of the proposals found the Boeing's proposal being accepted. In November 1962 however, McNamara selected General Dynamics' design due its greater commonality with Air Force and Navy versions and the contract was signed by General Dynamics in December 1962.

The TFX, now designated F-111A (Air Force) and F-111B (Navy) used the same structural components and the Pratt & Whitney TF30-P-1 turbofan engines. They featured a side-by-side crew seating in an escape capsule as required by the Navy. The Air Force version carried the AN/APQ-113 attack radar and AN/APQ-110 terrain-following radar and optimized for air-to-ground weapons delivery. The F-111A first flew on 21 December 1964 and initially there were compressor surge and stall issues in certain parts of the flight regime. This caused NASA, the Air Force and General Dynamics to redesign the inlet between 1965 and 1966. Cracks were also discovered in the wing attach points in 1968; despite that, one aircraft crashed in 1969 due to this problem. The attachment structure also required a redesign and testing to ensure adequate design and workmanship. Even though declared operational in 1971, flight test still continued until 1973. The F-111B was cancelled by the Navy in 1968 due to increased weight and performance issues and the need for further fighter requirements. However, the AWG-9 radar, AIM-54 Phoenix missile and the TF30 engine was retained for the F-14 Tomcat programme.

With the cancellation of the F-111B, the F-111 existed as an all-weather attack aircraft capable of low-level penetration of enemy airspace. The main features of the F-111 were variable-sweep wings, terrain-following radar, crew escape capsule and an internal weapons bay. The last-mentioned can fit two M117 750-lb bombs, one nuclear free-fall bomb, extra fuel tanks or a M61A1 Vulcan cannon. The last was removeable and was fed by a 2,084-round capacity ammo drum (the cannon was however rarely fitted). For external loads, the F-111 can be fitted with up to four underwing pylons under each wing, with the inner two being able to rotate with the sweep of the wings. Each pylon had the capacity of 5,000 pounds. The F-111 cannot carry ordnance under the fuselage but two stations were available for ECM or data-link pods. The Australian F-111C and the later F-111F version can carry an AN/AVQ-26 Pave Tack pod which can be rotated inside the weapons bay when not in use.

Deliveries of the  F-111s began on 17 July 1967 to the 474th Tactical Fighter Wing based at Cannon AFB, New Mexico and in early 1968, the 474th TFW relocated to Nellis AFB. The USAF then decided to send a small detachment of F-111s to South-East Asia to test the type under combat conditions. Known as the Combat Lancer program, six F-111As of the 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron left for Thailand on 15 March 1968. The missions would involve solo low-altitude, nighttime operations over North Vietnam. Such missions would be undertaken at low level (down to 100 feet) utilising the terrain-following radar and other targeting features under real-world scenarios. The first mission went successfully on 18 March 1968 but the the aircraft went missing for the next two missions. Two replacement aircraft were sent from Nellis but one of them also went missing afterwards. 51 other missions however went without a problem but the Combat Lancer program was halted on 22 April 1968 and the detachment returned stateside in November 1968. The losses caused a controversy, with the F-111 being called 'McNamara's Folly'. It was then established (and confirmed by surviving F-111 crews) that a tailplane problem could cause a sudden and uncontrollable pitch-up and roll, which in turn caused the aircraft to break up in flight. The cause of the other two losses were poor mounting of the M61 cannon and pilot error.

When the Easter Invasion by North Vietnam commenced in 1972, the F-111s of the 474th TFW returned to South-East Asia. 48 aircraft from the 428th and 429th TFS arrived at Takhli on 27 September 1972 as part of Constant Guard V operation. The first combat mission, just hours after arriving, resulted in another loss, and in turn, resulted in another suspension. In the next 60 days, three more F-111s were lost. During Operation Linebacker II in December 1972, the Aardvarks flew again, with two aircraft lost. The 428th and the 429th TFS were then absorbed into the reconstituted 347th TFW and flew on missions over Cambodia until 15 August 1973. Between September 1972 and August 1973, the Aardvarks flew 4,000 combat sorties, suffering the loss of seven aircraft (the six mentioned above plus another lost in an accident). The missions were mostly flown, especially during Linebacker II, at night and during the monsoon season, which grounded most attack aircraft (with the possible exception of the A-6 Intruder). The F-111 later took part during Operation El Dorado Canyon in 1986 and Operation Desert Storm in 1991.

The F-111A was further developed into the D, E and F versions. The F-111C is a variant of the F-111A as ordered by the Royal Australian Air Force with longer wings and strengthened landing gear. The USAF Strategic Air Command operated FB-111A strategic bomber armed with AGM-69 SRAM missiles. With the introduction of the B-1B Lancer, the FB-111A became surplus to the SAC and they were reconfigured for tactical use and redesignated F-111G. There was also an electronic warfare version, the EF-111A. Nicknamed by its crews as the 'Aardvark' because of the F-111's long, droopy nose resembled an aardvark's, the nickname was made official at a ceremony marking the retirement of USAF's F-111s on 27 July 1996.

The Kit

Italeri kit No. 1232, released in 2002, wasn't really a new kit. It was actually a reboxing of the ESCI kit from 1988. Despite its age, the kit has very nice details with crisp, engraved panel lines. While not up the standards of resin cockpits, the kit interior still have reasonable details. The canopy parts are separate and allows one to pose it in either open or closed positions. And, as usual with variable-geometry aircraft model, the wing swing hinge was included, which allowed wing movement. For external stores, Italeri included eight M117 750-lb bombs typically carried during the Vietnam War. The bombs however were hung from regular MERs and not the BRU-3/3A specifically made for the F-111. There were also two ALQ-87 ECM pods, to be fitted to their respective stations underneath the fuselage. Decals were included for three aircraft, all in T.O 114 (SEA) camouflage. They are for:

1. 429th TFS, 474th TFW, Takhli, Thailand 1972 (Constant Guard V)

2. 428th TFS, 474th TFW, Nellis AFB, Nevada 1978

3. 4481st TFS, 474th TFW, Takhli, Thailand 1968 (Combat Lancer)

The decals were well-printed and looked sharp. There were however no stencil decals except for some 'essential information' stuff; an aftermarket decal sheet is needed for the stencil datas.

Construction

The cockpit parts were first painted on the sprue. Italeri mentioned that the main colour is FS 36440. Having built a number of USAF aircraft, plus looking at photos of the cockpit, I'm convinced that the actual cockpit colour was FS 36231. I painted the colour using Gunze Aqueous H317. The detail inside the cockpit is of the typical 1980s issue kit - rather light on detail but what were provided were reasonable enough. All the dials, instrument panels and seat belts were provided as decals. The seats themselves has sufficient but inadequate detail. The cockpit was then assembled and set aside while I moved on to the nose wheel bay. Italeri had you assemble the nose landing gear, set it inside the well and glue the wheel well to the nose. I believe this is a recipe for broken parts, and after looking at the assembly sequence, I decided to just cement the wheel well only, with the landing gear parts cemented later. After cementing the cockpit module and the wheel well on the right forward fuselage half, I filled some plasticine inside the nose cavity for ballast; this was aided by the size of the nose, allowing easy filling.

I then moved on to the rear fuselage and the wings. The wings consists of bottom and upper halves, with a hole already drilled into each of the bottom half (more on this at the 'Finishing' chapter). As usual with swing-wing aircraft models, there were guide teeth for the inner wing side. The wings were aligned and the fuselage halves were cemented, and not without some awkward moments! There were gaps in the fuselage sides (because of the swing-wing design) and those would be attended later. The next step is concerned with the mating of the forward and rear fuselage assemblies. The model was put on its back for this stage. While there is a lip on the upper rear fuselage assembly to mate with the forward fuselage, the rest of the connection was made up of three panels; the bottom one had holes drilled first in order to accommodate the ALQ-87 pylon and the M61 cannon fairing later.The fit of the side panels to the forward fuselage was not very good and putty had to be used here. The exhaust cans and the extreme tail were assembled and because of its location, the tail was painted first and cemented onto the model. The horizontal and vertical tailplanes were cemented together with the intake assembly, cannon fairing and the ventral fins. Again, the fit wasn't good between the intake and the rear fuselage.

Painting and Decaling

I did not decide which markings to apply at this time. It wasn't a problem as all the marking options have the same camouflage patterns. The black nose and bottom was painted using Tamiya X-18 Semi-Gloss Black. The upper camouflage colours were FS30219, for which I used a mixture of Tamiya XF-59 Desert Yellow and XF-64 Red Brown; FS34102 was Tamiya XF-67 NATO Green and XF-13 JA Green was used for FS34079. Then it was time for decals with the Constant Guard V aircraft chosen for the markings. Having used a number of Italeri kit decals, I am pretty confident that this kit's decals would behave the same, and indeed they were, although the tailcode decals were translucent, showing the colours underneath them. The kit decals however lacked the numerous stencils and for that I used TwoBobs' 'Combat Lancer' decal sheet. Being printed by Microscale, they are really thin and have good register although some of them looked oversized, especially for the geometric shapes on the nose. All of them settled well with a bit of Mr Mark Softer. There were plenty of leftovers that can be used for another F-111 (and I did use the USAF insignia for my F-105 Thunderchief). Although not mentioned in the instructions, the leading edge of the wings were painted silver, after looking at contemporary photos of the Aardvark.

Finishing

I first painted the exhaust cans Steel and Burnt Iron and once dry they were cemented onto the model. Next, I painted and assembled the landing gear and its doors. Once the model got on its feet, I proceeded with the armament and ECM pods. The MERs are to be painted white according to the instructions, but photos show them to be black, so XF-1 was used to paint them. As for the weapons, Italeri provided just eight M117 bombs to arm the model. While OK, the kit-supplied ordnance was 'lighter' than the normal weapons loadout of an Aardvark. There were two more pylons in the kit but Italeri marked them as 'Not for use'*. I then cut some Tamiya tape, fixed them along the sides of the fuselage to cover the sliding portion of the wings. Not really sure of their colour, I painted them XF-13. The model then received the usual sludge wash and was then sprayed with Flat Clear.

Conclusion

The defunct ESCI had released some pretty detailed kit in the 1980s and as can be seen in Italeri's 2002 reboxing of the F-111A, it can still hold its ground against its rivals. The parts fit nicely (except for that fuselage panels and the intakes) and the problem of the gaping, uh, gap in the fuselage can actually be overcome with extra work, Another letdown was the ordnance options, but I think many modelers can live with that. Overall, it was quite a painless build.

*According to the F-111.net website, during the Combat Lancer deployment, the F-111 carried six M117s on one MER under each wing for a total of twelve, or 24 Mk. 82 500-lb bombs on four pylons (six per pylon), or four Mk. 84 2,000-lb bombs. In addition, the M117s were no longer carried during Operation Linebacker/Linebacker II. Essentially, the ordnance load depicted by the kit was inaccurate for Linebacker/Linebacker II missions. And as usual, I only realize this fact long after the model was completed, and after the extra pylons, along with the rest of the sprue was at the dumpsite!